The Muslims and Sri Lanka
By Kamalika Pieris
.
The first wave of Muslims to arrive
in Sri Lanka came from West Asia. Therefore let us briefly look at the Muslim
achievements in West Asia. Islam originated in the Arab Peninsula, where the
Prophet Mohammed preached in 622 AD. Islamic religious teachings are held in the
Koran and the Islamic social life is guided by the Islamic Sharia Law. The
Arabs, once converted to Islam, went on an expansionist spree which eventually
swallowed up Egypt, Syria, Persia, Iraq and finally, in 711 AD, Spain. Virtually
all those countries had their own civilisations prior to Islamisation. Persia
had developed the Persian script and had the Zoroastrian religion. But they all
converted to Islam and accepted the Arabic language. By the end of the 8th
century, the Islamic empire extended from Persia to Spain and included parts of
Northern Africa as well. There were two political centres. Firstly, Damascus
(660-750 AD) and thereafter Baghdad (750-1258 AD).
Between the
8th and 12th centuries, there developed a great Islamic civilisation,
intellectually brilliant, wealthy and enterprising. This Islamic civilisation
developed an urban civilisation well before Europe, which got there several
centuries later. Cairo in Egypt, Damascus in Syria and Baghdad in Iraq were very
advanced cities with paved streets, tiled floors, public baths, bookshops,
libraries, and universities. There developed a distinct Islamic art and
architecture, which is visible even today. There were great scholars, best known
of whom is Avicenna, of Persian origin, (980-1037 AD). His medical writings were
used in medical schools in France, Spain and Italy as late as 1650.
Western
Europe owes much of its
knowledge of mathematics, medicine, astronomy and philosophy to Arabic writings.
These writings preserved Greek thought as well. The Arabic writers also
functioned as a conduct for the transmission of ideas from India and China. The
Arabic scholars formulated the oldest known trignometric tables, introduced
Indian numerals, known Arabic numerals, and compiled astronomical tables. They
established obsrvatories to study the heavens. In the field of optics and
physics, they explained phenomena such as refraction of light, and the principle
of gravity. They made significant advances in chemistry. They discovered potash,
alcohol, silver nitrate, nitric acid, sulphuric acid and mercury chloride. They
originated processes such as distillation and sublimation.
Arabic
scholars made significant advances in medicine. Many drugs now in use are of
Arab origin. They established hospitals with a system of internees. Discovered
causes of certain diseases and developed correct diagnoses of them, proposed new
concepts of hygiene, made use of anesthetics in surgery with newly innovated
surgical tools and introduced the science of dissection in anatomy. They
furthered the scientific breeding of horses and cattle, and improved upon the
science of navigation. They also developed a high degree of perfection in art of
textiles, ceramics and metallurgy. (Most of this information has been taken from
references in Encyclopedia Britannica, 15 ed. 1995).
Christian scholars were greatly impressed by Arabic scholarship.
There was considerable cultural interaction between the two groups, with much of
it taking place in the Mediterranean shoes, particularly Spain and Sicily. It is
not generally known that Arabic culture influenced French culture as well. There
are words of Arabic origin in the French language. More importantly, voluminous
Latin translations were made in the 12th century, of major Arabic writings.
These were studied successively at the major emerging intellectual centres of
Europe, such as Italy, France and later England and Germany. It should also be
noted that during this time, Arabic had become, not only a religious language,
but also the main international language of the region. (lingua franca). It was
also the main language for scholarship.
The
Arabs also expanded eastwards, towards India and China, in search of trade. In
the 9th and 10th centuries, an assortment of Persians, Arabs, Abyssinians, all
Muslims, speaking Arabic and therefore conveniently called 'Arabs' dominated the
overseas trade from Baghdad to China. The Muslims of Sri Lanka were a part of
this trade operation. There is evidence that there were Muslim merchant
settlements in Sri Lanka as early as the 7th century. M. A. M. Shukri has used
the Arabic (Kufi) inscriptions in Sri Lanka to throw light on the origins of Sri
Lanka's Muslims. He says that the Sri Lanka Moors originally came from Aleppo, a
city in Syria. ('Sri Lanka and the Silk Road of the Sea' p181). Apparently there
is an Arabic document in the possession of one of the oldest Moor families in
Beruwela. It said that in 604 AD two sons of the Royal family of Yemen came to
Lanka, one settled in Mannar the other in Beruwela (Daily News 25.9. 98. p 16).
Muslim settlements started in Mantai, and thereafter spread
systematically in the trading ports. Archaeological evidence, such as tomb
stones, indicate that there were Muslim settlements in 10th century, in
Anuradhapura, Trincomalee and Colombo. Thereafter, there were Muslim settlements
in the port towns along the southwestern seaboard, such as Beruwela and Galle.
Lorna Dewaraja, in her book "The Muslims of Sri Lanka, 1000 years
of ethnic harmony 900-1915 AD" (Lanka Islamic Foundation, 1994) has studied the
situation of the Muslims in Sri Lanka, with particular reference to the Kandyan
Period. She makes several important points.
Firstly, she makes a comparison between the way Muslim settlers
were treated in Sri Lanka and the way they were treated in Burma, China and
Thailand. In Burma, Thailand and China, Muslim traders established trading posts
which eventually became permanent settlements. Every Burmese Muslim had two
names, one, Burmese and the other Arabic. For all practical purposes, only the
Burmese name was used. Further the Burmese king forbade the slaughter of goats
and fowl and forced the Muslims to listen to Buddhist sermons. In China too, the
Muslims had two names. They used the Chinese name and spoke Chinese and used
their Arabic names only with fellow Muslims. In Thailand too, the Muslims were
obliged to camouflage their Muslim identity from hostile eyes. (Dewaraja. p 6,
13, 15). In Sri Lanka, the Muslims had no such problems. As we all know, the
Muslims use their Arabic or Persian names very openly and proudly. Even today,
the Muslims in Kandyan areas have 2 names, a traditional Sinhala family name
denoting the person's ancestry and profession and an Arabic name. For all
practical purposes, only the Arabic name is known and used. The Sinhala name is
used only in legal documents and is useful in proving long residence in the
island and ownership of land. (Dewaraja. p 12-13).
In the
latter half of the 13th century, with the decline of the Caliphate of Baghdad,
Arab commercial activity in the Indian Ocean decreased. This trade was taken
over by the Indian Muslims of Gujerat and other Indian centres. Hindu merchants
did not travel. They were based in India. They exported their marchandise in
Muslim owned vessels. Thus colonies of Islamised Indians came up in the ports in
India's south western (Malabar) and south eastern (Coromandel) coasts right up
to Bengal. Thus thriving centres of Muslim commercial activity studded the
Indian coastline. Subsequently, colonies of such Indo-Arabs emerged along the
coasts of Sri Lanka. These settlements were described by the Dutch and British
as 'Coast Moors'. (Dewaraja p 41, 43).
The second wave of Muslims came to Sri Lanka from South India.
They were the descendants of earlier Arab traders who had settled in South
Indian ports and married local women. Thus Tamil and Malayalam came to be
written in Arabic script, and was known as Arabic Tamil. The Koran was
translated into Arabic Tamil. It was translated into Sinhala only recently.
Since it was compulsory for Muslim children to read the Koran, they had to know
Arabic Tamil. This partly explains why Muslims who have lived for centuries in
wholly Sinhala speaking areas retained Arabic Tamil as their 'mother tongue'.
Generations of Sri Lankan Tamils went to theological institutions in Vellore to
study Islamic learning. It has also been suggested that Muslims speak Tamil
because Tamil was widely used in maritime commerce in the Indian Ocean (Dewaraja
p 17).
Lorna
Dewaraja points out that during the time of the Sinhala kings, from the ancient
period, right upto the Kandyan Period, there was racial amity between the
Sinhalese and the Muslims. The reason was that the Muslim traders were
economically and politically an asset to the Sri Lankan king. The King therefore
provided protection and permission for the traders to settle in Sri Lanka
(Dewaraja p 4).
"Right through
from the Anuradhapura period to Kandyan times there was a Muslim lobby operating
in the Sri Lankan court. It advised the king on overseas trade policy. They also
kept the king informed of developments abroad. The Muslim trader with his
navigational skills and overseas contacts became the secret channel of
communication between the court and the outside world" (Dewaraja p 8). The Sri
Lankan kings encouraged the Muslims to maintain their links with the Islamic
world as this was mutually beneficial. In the 13th century, Al Haj Aby Uthman
was sent by the Sri Lankan king, Bhuvanekabahu I to the Mamluk Court of Egypt to
negotiate direct trade. They were sent on important and confidential missions to
South India right up to Kandyan times. The Muslims of Sri Lanka spoke Tamil and
other South Indian languages and some even spoke Portuguese (p 8, 16).
Dewaraja says that when the Portuguese first appeared off the
shores of Sri Lanka, the Muslims warned the king, sangha, nobles and the people
of the potential threat to the country's soveriegnty. When the Portuguese tried
to gain a foothold in Colombo, the Muslims provided firearms, fought side by
side with the Sinhalese and even used their influence with South Indian powers
to get military asistance to Sinhalese rulers. Through the intervention of the
Muslims, the Zamorin of Calicut sent three distinguished Moors of Cochin with
forces to help Mayadunne (p 50).
When
the Dutch appeared and persecuted the Muslims in their coastal settlements, the
Muslims ran to the Kandyan Kingdom. Senerat (1604-1635) and Rajasimha II
(1635-1687) settled these Muslims in the Eastern coast. Senerat settled large
numbers of Tamils and Muslims in Dighavapi area of Batticaloa to revive the
paddy cultivation. There were roads leading from Kandy to Batticaloa passing
through Minipe and Vellassa (p 127).
Dewaraja points out that it is clear from the writings of Pybus
that even in 1762 the authority of the King of Kandy was strongly felt in areas
around Trincomalee even among his Muslim and Tamil subjects. It is necessary for
us to bear in mind that the Kandyan Kings saw themselves as kings of the whole
country. Through Kottiyar in Trincomalee, Batticaloa, Kalpitiya and Puttalam
they traded with India, and the Muslims and Chetties acted as the middlemen.
From Kottiyar (Trincomalee) to Kandy there was a land route following the
Mahaweli. Muslims had pack oxen and caravans and travelled this rout. The
resting places on this route became the nucleus of later Muslim settlements
(Dewaraja p 91, 125, 126).
Muslims
were made welcome in the Kandyan Kingdom. They were integrated into Kandyan
society primarily by giving them duties which related to the King's
administration. They were made a part of the Madige Badda or Transport
Department. They were allowed to trade in arecanut, which was a royal monopoly.
The Muslims from Uva, which was near the salterns, had to bring salt as part of
their obligatory service (Dewaraja p 100-101). In addition to this, select
Muslims were involved in the Maligawa rituals and were given Maligagam lands.
Their duties included salt, hevisi, silversmith (acari) also the higher function
of kariya karavanarala. Therefore the Muslims were involved however minimally in
the administrative and ritual aspects of the Dalada Maligawa as well (Dewaraja.
p 107-8, 110). In addition, Muslims also functioned as weavers, tailors,
barbers, and lapidarists (p 137-138).
Muslims
also functioned as physicians, and presumably they practised Unani medicine.
Dewaraja states that at this time, Unani had been practised in its pure form in
towns like Colombo, Galle and Beruwela (p 128). A Muslim physician named
Sulaiman Kuttiya who was practising in Galle was invited to the Kandyan court,
taken into royal service and given land near Gampola. His descendants who lived
till 1874 carried the prefix "Galle Vedaralala" (p 91). The most renowned of
these Muslim physicians were the Gopala Moors of Gataberiya in the Kegalle
District. The family traces its pedigree to a physician from Islamic Spain,
whose descendants migrated to the Sind in Northern India, from where they were
ordered to come to Sri Lanka to attend on King Parakramabahu II of Dambadeniya
(1236-1270) (p 128). The Gopala descendants continued to function as physicians
to the king, during reigns of Rajadirajasinghe (1782-1798) and Srivickrama
Rajasinghe. (1798-1815). The Dutch also appointed two Muslims as local
physicians in their hospitals, and one of them, Mira Lebbe Mestriar was
thereafter appointed as Native Superintendent of the Medical Department in 1806
by the British (p 133).
Another important function of he Muslims in the Kandyan Court, was
that they acted as envoys to the King. One Muslim envoy had been sent to the
Nawab of Carnatic. Another had been sent to Pondicherry soliciting French
assistance against the Dutch, in 1765. The King also made use of his Muslim
subjects to keep abreast of developments outside his kingdom. The Muslims were
useful in this respect because of their trade links and knowledge of languages
(p 135-136).
The
Muslims were received favourably in the Kandyan Kingdom, as far as can be seen.
Robert Knox says that charitable Sinhala people giftd land to Muslims to live
(Dewaraja p 115). Muslims adopted the outward appearance and dress and manners
of the Sinhalese. Even James Cordiner couldnot see the difference (p 120). In
Galagedara there are yet two villages occupied only by Muslims, surrounded by
Sinhala villages. These two villages had Masjids (p 104). Masjids were built on
lands donated by the king. Present Katupalliya and Meera Makkam Masjid in Kandy
were built on land gifted by the king. The architcture of the Katupalliya is
Kandyan. (p114-115). Ridi Vihare in Kurunegala gave part of its land for a
Masjid and allocated a portion of land for the maintenance of a Muslim priest (p
113).
In 1930, in
Rambukkana many Muslim boys had received their education in Buddhist
monasteries. Many of them studied Sinhala and idigenous medicine. Facilities
were provided for the Muslim boys to say their prayers and attend Koranic
classes, while living in the temple. In this remote village in Rambukkana,
Muslims made voluntary contributions towards the vihara and they participated in
the Esala Perahera. The drumers voluntarily stopped the music when they passed
Masjid (Dewaraja p 113).
Between Hammer and Anvil: Sri Lanka's
Muslims
Adam's
peak, a symmetrically conical mountain set in the gorgeous hill country of
southern Sri Lanka, is sacred to all of the island's main faiths. There is a
strange indentation set in the living rock of the summit. To the majority
Sinhalese Buddhists (69% of the total population) it is the footprint of the
Buddha Gautama. The Tamil Hindus (21%) know better - it is, of course, the
sacred footprint of the God Shiva. Then again, the island's Muslims (7%) insist,
it is the footprint left by Adam when, cast out of the Garden of Eden by a
wrathful God, he fell to earth in the place nearest to that celestial grove in
terms of beauty, fertility and climate - Sri Lanka.
In happier times Buddhist, Hindu and Muslim - together with the
island's Catholic Christians, who believe the footprint to be that of St Thomas
- were content to disagree amicably, sharing the pilgrimage season between
December and April each year, when every night thousands of people climb the
seemingly endless stairs to the 2,224 metre summit and await the sunrise.
As the
whole world knows, those days of inter-racial and inter-denominational harmony
are long gone - though not at Adam's Peak, secure in the government-dominated
Sinhala heartland. Rather the troubles are at the other end of the island, where
for twenty years, ever since the simmering hostility between Buddhist Sinhalese
and Tamil Hindu exploded into open warfare, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
(LTTE) have pursued their struggle for a separate Tamil state.
As the third,
and smallest, of the island's racial-religious communities, the Sri Lankan
Muslims - generally if confusingly known as "Moors" - have become the forgotten
losers in this vicious struggle. The Tamils, evidently misclassified by the
British during their long hegemony in South Asia as a "non-martial race", have
fought with an extraordinary fanaticism under the cold command of the LTTE
leader Velupillai Prabhakharan. From the earliest days of the war they did not
hesitate to employ "ethnic cleansing" - that late 20th century euphemism for
genocide - against Sinhalese villagers living in the north. Subsequently, and
with the same ruthlessness, the same tactic has been used against Muslims.
To
understand why this should be so, it is necessary to examine the anomalous
situation of the Sri Lankan Moors - Tamil speakers who yet, for the most part,
support the Sinhalese-dominated government of Chandrika Kumaratunga.
There have been Muslims in Sri Lanka for well over a thousand
years. Trading dhows plied the waters between the Middle East and the island
known to Arab sailors - like the legendary Sinbad - as Serendib even in
pre-Islamic times. The first Muslim merchants and sailors may have landed on its
shores during the Prophrt Muhammad's life time. By the 10th century this
predominantly Arab community had grown influential enough to control the trade
of the south-western ports, whilst the Sinhalese kings generally employed Muslim
ministers to direct the state's commercial affairs. In 1157 the king of the
neighbouring Maldive Islands was converted to Islam, and in 1238 an embassy to
Egypt sent by King Bhuvaneka Bahu I was headed by Sri Lankan Muslims.
From about 1350 onwards the predominantly Arab strain in Sri
Lankan Islam began to change as Tamil Muslims from neighbouring South India
moved to the island in increasing numbers. By the late 15th century, when
Portuguese vessels first arrived in the Indian Ocean, Sri Lanka's Muslims were
truly indigenous to the island, representing a mixture of Sinhalese, Arab and
Tamil blood, and speaking Tamil with Arabic overtones, sometimes known as
"Tamil-Arabic". None of this made any difference to the newly-arrived
Portuguese, for whom all Muslims were "Moors" - the name given to their
traditional enemies in Morocco and southern Spain. The name Moro - employed as a
derogatory designation by the Portuguese - stuck, and is today "worn with pride"
by Sri Lankan Muslims, in much the same way as the "Moros" of the southern
Philippines.
In Sri Lanka, as everywhere they went, the Portuguese made a
special point of persecuting the Muslims. As a consequence, many fled the
western littoral which had passed under Portuguese control, and settled in the
north and east of the island where their descendants live to the present day. A
hundred years later, in 1656, when the Dutch replaced the Portuguese, a third
(and final) element was added to the island's Muslim population - the Malay.
Malay sailors had been visiting Sri Lanka for centuries using long-distance
outrigger canoes; now, with the arrival of the Dutch, many more were brought
from Java to serve their Dutch colonial rulers in Sri Lanka. In time they were
absorbed into the island's ethnically diverse Muslim community, though even
today many Sri Lankan Muslims identifying themselves as "Malays" rather than
"Moors" can be found living in Western Province, and especially in Colombo.
Today Sri Lanka's Muslims live scattered throughout the island,
from Galle in the south to the Tamil-dominated Jaffna peninsula in the north.
Generally they are involved in commerce, from running local dry goods stores to
dominating the wealthy gem business associated with Ratnapura - "Jewel City" and
much of the capital's import-export business. In the disputed north and east of
the country, where the LTTE are currently battling the Sri Lankan armed forces,
many Muslims are farmers or fishermen, living in small villages far from the
protection of government forces. It is these people - the poorest of the
island's "Moors", descendants of the orginal refugees displaced by the
Portuguese four hundred years ago - that are now caught up in the struggle for
"Tamil Eelam".
Most Moors speak Tamil as their first language, regarding
Sinhalese and English as languages of commerce to be used in their business
dealings. Despite this linguistic affinity they do not consider themselves
Tamil, however, and have precious little sympathy for the Tamil Tigers' cause.
Rather they tend to support the government, albeit passively, wishing simply to
pursue their business interests with the full freedom of religion they have long
been accustomed too. Unfortunately, this is no longer possible. In those areas
contested by the LTTE with a substantial Muslim population - for example,
Northern Province's Vavuniya District, and Eastern Province's Tricomalee and
Batticaloa Districts - they are under serious pressure.
Initially, it seems, the Tamil separatists hoped to enlist the
Tamil-speaking Moors in their struggle for an independent Tamil state
encompassing all of Northern and Eastern Provinces. When the Moors remained
aloof - and even indicated support for the government position - they became
identified as enemies. Worse than that, as Tamil-speakers there seemed, to Tiger
minds at least, an element of treason in their lack of support. Subsequently, as
the LTTE struggle for secession developed into open warfare with the government
in Colombo, Prabhakharan, showing characteristic ruthlessness, targeted the
Moors for "ethnic cleansing" - that is, physical expulsion or elimination - from
the lands sought by the Tigers as a Tamil homeland.
The Tigers first began to attack the Moors on a systematic basis
over a decade ago. In August, 1990, in two separate incidents, more than 230
Muslims were massacred at prayer at towns near Pulmoddai, in the north-east of
the island. At the same time Prabhakharan gave notice that the entire Muslim
population of Northern Province, including the then rebel-held capital of
Jaffna, should leave contested areas forthwith or face being killed. An
estimated one hundred thousand people were affected by this threat, many of who
have since fled to government-controlled areas in the centre and south of the
island. Tens of thousands were made destitute, the majority of whom still eke
out a living in refugee camps. Following this incident, Muslim fishermen became
a favourite target of LTTE maritime patrols, and Muslim businessmen a preferred
target for abduction and ransom.
Muslim leaders in the north and east have responded by voicing
their own claims for autonomy in the region, making it clear that - should the
LTTE reach an agreement with Colombo on autonomous status - they would seek to
opt out from Tamil control. Prabhakharan's response has been as vigorous and
ruthless as ever. If the Muslims won't accept Tamil rule, they must be expelled
from Northern Province and Eastern Province en masse.
Caught in the intricate and seemingly endless web of violence
between Tamil Hindu and Sinhalese Buddhist, Sri Lanka's Muslims are increasingly
desperate, unsure which way to turn, and whom to trust. Forgotten victims of a
particularly vicious war, they are trapped between hammer and anvil, a long way
indeed from the Garden of Eden.
Post a Comment